The Evolution of Empathy

From charity donation to building life-long relationships, empathy is a crucial aspect of human existence. This ability to vicariously understand each others’ emotions and situations has allowed us to progress significantly as a society. The theory of natural selection appears to propagate selfishness and insensitivity, so where did empathy come from? Hunter-gatherers of today like the Hunza and !Kung shed light on behaviours of the past as being unbiased since resources are shared between tribes and patriarchy is non-existent. Going back in history, cooperative breeding was a common practice, where offspring were cared for not only by their parents but also those unrelated individuals and this increased the chance of the species' survival. Egocentrism and warfare are thought to have developed due to the arrival of agriculture. When people could trade their goods in exchange for food, they were no longer compelled to work as farmers and this created a hierarchical structure in society which triggered hostility and inequality within it. Nevertheless, this demonstrates that humans have a propensity towards good rather than evil since it is more deep-seated and ingrained. Empathy is not a quality unique to humans and is present in many other species. There are two main possible theories for how empathy came about- the first being kin selection theory. Kin selection theory, initially proposed in 1963, is a category of natural selection where an individual engages in an activity to benefit its relatives rather than itself which still contributes to the transmission of its genes to offspring. This is often seen in parents making sacrifices to care for their children, a common reason why empathy is thought to have evolved. Another example is ground squirrels which emit calls to alert surrounding ground squirrels of the presence of a predator. They do this more frequently when a higher proportion of their relatives are near. Or take Formica ant workers which are sterile but care for the young and search for food while a few queen ants are responsible for reproduction. Although there are real-world instances, mathematical models and research to support this theory, it does not explain why individuals help those who are not related to them, like mentioned above in the idea of cooperative breeding. The second is the reciprocal altruism theory, formulated in 1950, which suggests that individuals make sacrifices to benefit non-relatives as long as they are compensated or promised to be compensated with a reciprocated favour in the future. This is most prevalent in groups where members repeatedly interact with one another and occurs when the benefits received are greater than the cost they endured, meaning it is less common than kin selection. Examples include cleaning symbiosis, where “cleaning” organisms feed on parasites on their fish “clients”, and bees which feed on nectar in flowers, whilst also helping to pollinate them. Despite the fact that the theory has merit, its specific criteria limit its usefulness in exploring empathy more broadly. Both theories imply that empathy is a key factor in driving selflessness as they enable one to identify with others. More recently, de Waal’s Russian doll model, developed in 2007, highlights three components of empathy: emotional contagion, consolation and perspective-taking. The consecutive characteristics are more cognitively complex and conscious than the one(s) before. Animals that live in groups exhibit emotional contagion and state matching capabilities since they improve unity and cooperation between members of the group. Emotional contagion is also seen in humans from birth- when a baby’s crying triggers the same action in other infants. Mammals provide solace to suffering members of their species like chimpanzees which offer contact comfort. Animals that are able to recognise themselves in mirrors, like apes, dolphins and elephants, carry out “targeted helping”- providing assistance based on an understanding of others’ needs- and this self-recognition ability is related to perspective-taking in humans. The evolution of empathy in humans and other species continues to be a fascinating and eye-opening topic for scientists today as they dispel myths about the brutal nature of “survival of the fittest”. Does it give you hope that knowledge of the goodness of yesterday can build a brighter and better tomorrow? If so, I know how you feel.